Spanish Grammar - Part 2

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Review - Present Tense

Remember that in both Spanish and English, the simple present tense is used to state what is true in the present or what is universally true. 
Yo trabajo todos los días.         I work every day.
El sol se levanta por la mañana.   The sun rises in the morning.

Review Definite Article (the)

Here is a quick review of definite articles. 
  Singular     Plural
     el         los       male
     la         las       female


The articles must agree in number and gender with the noun. 

  Singular                 Plural
  el libro    the book    los libros     the books
  la pluma    the pen     las plumas     the pens


The masculine article in the singular is used before feminine words beginning with stressed a or ha. 

 el agua   the water      las aguas   the waters
 el alma   the soul       las almas   the souls
 el hada   the fairy      las hadas   the fairies


The definite article is used with:

1. Titles. The definite article is used before señor, señora, señorita and other titles, except don and dona, when speaking of a person, but not when speaking to the person. 

 El señor Moreno es mi maestro.      Mr. Moreno is my teacher
 Buenos Días, señor Moreno.          Good morning, Mr. Moreno.
 La señorita Garcia enseña el        Miss Garcia teaches Spanish.
     español.
 El capitán López es valiente.       Captain López is valient.
 Don Juan es famoso.                 Don Juan is famous.
 El señor don José Garcia es rico.   Mr. Joseph Garcia is rich.


2. Nouns used in a general sense. 

 El oro es precioso.      Gold is precious.
 El azúcar es dulce.      Sugar is sweet.
 Los perros son fieles.   Dogs are faithful


3. Languages. The article is generally used with the names of languages except when placed directly after the verb hablar or the prepositions en or de. 

 Pablo estudia el inglés.       Paul is studying English.
 Pablo habla español.           Paul speak Spanish.
 Habla bien el español.         He speaks Spanish well.
 Escribe la lección de inglés.  He writes the English lesson.
 Escribe la leccíon en inglés.  He writes the lesson in English.


4. Parts of the body or clothing. 

 Carmen tiene los ojos azules.  Carmen has blue eyes.
 Pedro tiene pelo negro.        Peter has black hair.
 María se puso el sombrero.     Mary put on her hat.


5. Units of measure. 

 Costó dos pesos el metro.           It cost two dollars a meter.
 Se vende a diez cetavos la libra.   It is sold at ten cents a pound.

Check Your Learning-Review of Articles

Substitue the blank spaces for the correct article. It may be definite or indefinite. If an article isn ’t necessary, put at ‘x’ in the blank. 
1.  Ese país exporta      zapatos y      artículos de piel.
2.  Nos veremos      13 de mayo cuando      primavera está má bonita.
3.       señora Gómez enseña      español y      portugués.
4.  Esa alfombras vienen de      Perú.
5.  Dígame,      señora Rodríguez, ¿conoce usted      doctor Álvarez?
6.  Con      amistad sincera de nuestros amigos, lograremos vencer
     dificultades.
7.  No queremos estudiar      matemáticas ahora.
8.  Hoy es      martes.  ¿Cuándo dijo que venía,      martes o
      miércoles?
9.  Luis fue a      cuarto para copiar oracions de ‘     Burlador de Seville’.
10.  Ésta es      tercera vez que dices esa tonterías.
11.  Oí      concierto maravilloso en      Teatro Colón,      gran
        centro cultural de Buenos Aires.

Review (ser, estar)

As discussed in Part 1, there are many other uses for these verbs. It is well to remember that ser tells what something is, and estar tells where it is. The conjugations of these verbs are irregular in many of the tenses. Please refer to Part 1 for their irregular conjugations. 
 Madrid es una ciudad.   Madrid is a city.
 Madrid está en España.  Madrid is in Spain.


Estar

1. To express location or position 

 El libro está en la mesa.   The book is on the table.
 Juan estå en el campo.      John is in the country.


2. To express a temporary or variable condition or state. 

 Juan está enfermo.           John is sick.
 La ventana está abierta.     The window is open.


3. To express a state of health. 

 Juan está bien.    John is well.
 María está mala.   Mary is ill.


4. To form the progressive tenses. 

 Juan está estudiando.   John is studying.


SER

1. To identify a person or an object. 

 El edificio es un templo.   The building is a temple.
 Es Juan.                    It is John.
 Es ella.                    It is she.


2. To express inherent qualities or characteristics (appearances, charater, size, color, material, state of being). 

 María es bonita.           Mary is pretty.
 María es buena.            Mary is good.
 La casa es grande.         The house is large.
 La casa es blanca.         The house is white.
 Su vestido es de seda.     Her dress is of silk.
 Juan es rico.              John is rich.
 Carlos es pobre.           Charles is poor.
 María es joven.            María is young.
 Su abuela es vieja.        Her grandmother is old.


3. To express nationality, occupation, origin. 

 Juan es español.     John is Spanish.
 Es carpintero.       He is a carpenter.
 Juan es de España.   He is from Spain.


4. To tell time. 

 ¿Qué hora es?    What time is it?
 Son las tres.    It’s three o’clock.


5. To express ownership. 

 Los libros son de Juan.    The books are John’s.


6. In impersonal expressions. 

 Es necesario.    It is necessary.
 Es posible.      It is possible.


7. To express the passive voice (used with a past participle). 

 El teléfono fue inventado por       The telephone was invented by
 Bell.                               Bell.
 Las isla fueron descubiertas        The islands were discovered by
 por Colón.                          Columbus.

Review (nouns/adjectives)

Gender

All nouns in Spanish are either masculine or feminine. The gender of the noun denoting a person or animal is determined by the sex of the person or animal. 
 el hombre    the man           la mujer   the woman


Nouns ending in -o are usually masculine and thoses ending in -a, -dad, -ión, -umbre, are usually feminine. 

 el libro    the book        la pluma       the pen
 la nación   the nation      la costumbre   the custom


Many nouns form the feminine by changing the final -o of the masculine to an -a and others, by adding an -a to the masculine form. 

 el maestro, la maestra
 el profesor, la profesora    the teacher


Numbers

1. The plural of a noun is formed by adding an -s to words ending in an unaccented vowel and -es to those ending in a consonant or an accented vowel. 

 la casa    house     las casas     houses
 el papel   paper     los papeles   papers
 el rubí    ruby      los rubíes    rubies
 el bambú   bamboo    los bambúes   bamboos


Exceptions: 

 el papá    los papás
 la mamá    las mamás
 el sofá    los sofás


2. Words ending in z change the z to c when adding -es 

 el lápiz   pencil       los lápices   pencils
 la cruz    cross        las cruces    crosses


3. Words of more than one syllable ending in -s remain unchanged, unless the last syllable is stressed. 

 el mes         month         los meses       months
 el lunes       Monday        los lunes       Mondays
 el paraguags   umbrella      los paraguas    umbrellas
 el inglés      Englishman    los ingleses    English
 el francés     Frenchman     los franceses   French


4. Family names remain unchanged. 

 Los García    The Garcías


5. Nouns of relationship and rank, when used in the masculine plural, have two meanings. 

 los padres      fathers, parents
 los hermanos    brothers, the brother and sister
 los señores     men, Mr. and Mrs.
 los reyes       kings, the king and queen


6. Abstract nouns, made by placing lo before an adjective, are neuter in gender and have no plural form. 

 lo bueno   the good       lo malo   the bad

al/del

When the prepositions a or de immediately precede the article el, the following contractions are mandatory. 
 a + el = al        de + el = del
 ¿Vas al cine con las hija del presidente?    Are you going to the movie with the
                                              daughter of the president?


Spanish also uses al + infinitive for on + present participle. 

 Al encontrar a su vecino, el Señor Diaz le    On meeting his neighbor, Mr. Diaz
 preguntó cómo estaba.                         asked how he was.

Direct/Indirect object pronouns

The direct object pronoun receives the action of the verb. 
   Singular                         Plural
me            me                nos         us
te            you               os          you
le, lo (m)    you, him          les, los    you, them
la (f)        you, her, it      las         you, them
lo (m)        it                los         them
lo (n)        it


Indirect Object

The indirect object pronoun denotes the person to, for, or from whom anything is given, told, sent, etc. 

me      to me                     nos     to us
te      to you                    os      to you
le      to you, him, her, it      les     to you, them


To clarify the meaning of le and les and also often for emphasis, Spanish may use a + prepositional pronoun in addition to the indirect object pronoun. If there is no noun subject, a + prepositional pronoun may either precede or follow the verb. 

Ex:   Gerardo le dio el libro a usted.      Jerry gave the book to you.
      Francisco le enseñó los perros a él.  Frances showed the dogs to him
      A ellos les escribimos ayer.          We wrote to them yesterday.


NOTE: The redundant construction is not a substitute for the regular indirect object pronoun. It is used only when clarification is needed or for emphasis.

Check Your Learning-Direct/Indirect Object Pronouns

Complete the following exercise by translating the English expressions to Spanish.

1. María está aquí; (I saw her) en la sala. 2. Nuestros amigos no nos han traido los libros; (they left them en su casa. 3. Las chicas han llegado; (I heard them) en el pasillo. 4. Mis sobrinas siempre (accompany me).

Translate the following sentences using two personal pronouns to express the indirect object.
Example: I returned the book to her. Le devolví el libro a ella.

1. (Ud.) Will you give them the tickets immediately?

2. (tú) Did the landlord return your money to you?

3. The boss talked to him about his salary.

4. (Ud.) Paul asked you for his gift three times, didn’t he?

5. (Uds.) Yesterday they notified you of the date of the test.

de for possession

English - ’s or -s’ is translated by de ‘of’: 
el libro de Juan          John’s book (‘the book of John’)
los libros de los niños   the boys’ books (‘the books of the boys’)

Check Your Learning- ‘de’ for possession

Write the following sentences omiting the ambiguous use of ‘su’ and ‘sus’ by using ‘de’. 
Example: Aquí están sus cartas. (his)
         Aquí están las cartas de él.


1. Su mesa es de madera fina. (their, fem.)

2. No me enseñes sus notas. (her)

3. Acaban de traer sus muebles. (your, formal, singular)

4. Lavaron su coche. (her)

5. ¿Han visto a su tío? (their, masc.)

6. Jaime me dio su dirección. (his)

7. Quiero ir a su casa. (his)


Reflexive verbs

The reflexive form of the verb allows for the creation of reflexive sentences. Not all reflexive sentences have the same reflexive meaning. Most of the meanings of reflexive sentences are related to the original meaning of the non reflexive form of the verb, but they bring a small change in the origninal perception of that meaning. Look at the following two examples. 
Me corté el dedo cuando corté el pan.   I cut my finger when I sliced the bread.
Te alegrarás si alegras a tu mamá.      You will be glad if you make you mother glad.


In the first pair, the reflexive form of cortar, me corté, indicates whose finger I cut unwillingly, while the non reflexive form, corté, points out the object I cut willingly.

In the second pair, the reflexive form of alegrar, te alegrarás, point out an emotional transformation or change inside the subject tú for doing something intentionally, as alegrar a tu mamá.

Check Your Learning-Reflexive Verbs

Translate to Spanish, the following sentences using the reflexive construction.
1. I shave every morning before going out.
2. My cousin Lucy looks at herself in the mirror for thirty minutes.
3. Last Saturday when I got up at six, I asked myself: ‘Why did I do such a stupid thing?’
4. At my house we serve ourselves at dinnertime since there is no one there to serve us.
5. When Arthur walks by me I always think, ‘Did he bathe this morning?’

Translate to English the following sentences to English.
1. Este hombre me áburre con sus conversaciones inútiles.
2. ¿Te cansaste mucho ayer?
3. Esa novela no interesa a nadie.
4. No puede imaginarse usted lo mucho que extraño a mis amigos.
5. Nicolás se enfermó anoche, pero ya está bien.

Hacer construction (time duration)

In English, when the verb is in the preterite and the expression of time is followed by the word ‘ago’, the Spanish will use the present of hacer to indicate how much time has elapsed from the occurence of the action to the present. 
Vi a tu hermano hace diez minutos.      I saw your brother ten minutes ago.
Hace cinco años que él vino a América.  Five years ago he came to America.


Here is an example of the construction: 

a. Preterite + hace + time expression
b.  hace + time expression + que + preterite

Check Your Learning-Hacer construction (time duration)

Express the following phrases imagining that you are talking in the present time.
1. empezar a trabajar en (lugar); dos semanas.
2. salir con Luisita; trs sábados.
3. casarse mis padres; veinticuartro años
4. llegar a Madrid; cinco meses
5. alistarse en el ejército; seic semanas

Preterite tense (regular/irregular)

Preterite Tense

This tense describes an action that was completed at some time in the past. Here are some examples: 
Mi padre llegó ayer.            My father arrived yesterday.
Tomé el desayuno a las siete.   I had breakfast at seven o’clock.
¿Que pasó?                      What happened?


This tense is regularly formed as follows:
Drop the -ar ending of an infinitive, like hablar, and add the following endings: é, aste, ó, amos, asteis, aron.
You then get: 

hablé         I talked.
hablaste      You talked.
habló         He/She/It talked.
hablamos      We talked.
hablasteis    You talked.
hablaron      They talked.


Drop the -er ending of an infinitive, like beber, or the -ir ending of an infinitive, like recibir, and add the following endings: í, iste, ió, imos, isteis, ieron.
You then get: 

bebí         I drank.               recibí        I received
bebiste      You drank.             recibiste     You received.
bebio        He/She/It drank.       recibió       He/She/It received
bebimos      We drank.              recibimos     We received
bebisteis    You drank.             recibisteis   You received.
bebieron     They drank.            recibieron    They received.


Preterite vs. Imperfect

By asking yourself the following questions about verbs, you will be able to see when to use the preterite or the imperfect.

PRETERITE

1. Does the action advance the narrative at all?
2. Is the action limited in time in any way whatsoever? Even if the
action takes place over twenty years, if the time is limited, use the Preterite.
3. Does the action state a past fact which does not set a background?
4. Does the action indicate a change in mental state?
5. Does the reflexive form of a Spanish verb correspond to the English become + Adjective?
Ex: Nos callamos...(We became silent...)

Check Your Learning-Preterite Tense

Translate the following sentences to Spanish. Which expression in the sentence helps you to determine the tense that you should use?

1. It rained all night.
2. I worked for an hour before going to bed.
3. Alfonso XIII was the grandfather of Juan Carlos I, the present king of Spain.
4. Steve cut down the tree in less than two hours.
5. The carnival lasted five days.
6. The president closed the door and opened his suitcase.
7. They slept until ten o’clock in the morning.
8. He told me the truth.
9. What did she tell you?
10. The king sat on the throne all day.

lo and lo que

The neuter article lo is sometimes used with the masculine singular form of the adjective to express an abstract idea. In English, the + adjective + thing expresses the same concept. Here is an example: 
 Lo peligroso de manejar      The dangerous thing about driving
 en invierno es que           in winter is that
 hay hielo en los puentes.    there is ice on the bridges.


The masculine singular form of the possessive pronoun is used with the neuter lo to indicate an idea encompassing everything that is in the possession of the person indicated by the pronoun. Example: 

No quiero que toquen lo mío.      I don’t want them to touch my things
                                   (what belongs to me).
Lo nuestro está a la disposición  What we have is at the disposal
de todos.                          of everyone.


The neuter lo is used with que to express the English "what." As a relative pronoun, the English what has no antecedent. The Spanish lo que is really made up of the indefinite antecedent lo (that) and the relative que (which). Although there is not an antecedent in the main clause, it is understood that there is a reference to a previously mentioned idea.
Look at these examples: 

Lo que dices es verdad.        What you are saying is true.
Dígame lo que hace Ricardo.    Tell me what Richard is doing.


When it sums up a previously expressed idea, lo que is the equivalent of the English "which." In such a case, lo sums up the entire idea that was previously expressed. 

Francisco siempre quiere contestar       Francis always wants to answer
todas las preguntas,                     all the questions,
lo que no es posible.                    which isn’t possible.

Check Your Learning-Lo Que

Translate to Spanish
1. (tú) What you want and what you get are two different things.

2. Everything that he said is true.

3. He never comes home until one o’clock, which is bad.

4. My father criticizes everything I do.

5. (Ud.) Tell me what happened.

6. (Uds.) The boy is very intelligent, which yu already know.


Imperfect tense

The Imperfect is a past tense and suggests incompletion. This tense expresses an action or state of being that was continous in the past but its completion is not indicated. It also indicates actions or states that have been repeated or were habitual in the past. It also describes physical conditions or mental states. The imperfect tense is formed by adding the endings to the stem of the infinitive. 
  hablar
  I was speaking, used to speak; you were speaking, etc.
  hablaba     hablábamos
  hablabas    hablabais
  hablaba     hablaban
  comer                     vivir
  I was eating, etc.        I was living, etc.
  comía    comíamos         vivía    vivíamos
  comías   comíais          vivías   vivíais
  comía    comían           vivía    vivían
Juan hablaba de su viaje.         John was talking of his trip.
María cosía todos los días.       Mary used to sew every day.
Yo vivía en España.               I used to live in Spain.
La niña tenía los ojos azules.    The child had blue eyes.
Luisa estaba triste.              Louise was sad.


Imperfect vs. Preterite

By asking yourself the following questions about verbs, you will be able to see when to use the imperfect or the preterite.

IMPERFECT

1. Does the action merely supply a background for the plot by
describing a state?
2. Is it a continuing action which is interrupted by another action? In that case, put the
continuing action in the imperfect.
3. Is it a past action expressed by was/were + ing form of the verb?
4. Is it a customary action, repeated regularly, whch would be expressed in English by
would/used to + verb?

Check Your Learning-Imperfect Tense

Change the English verb forms to the appropriate form of the imperfect tense.

1. Todas las mañana (we had) la misma rutina.
2. Nos (would wake up) la campanada de las seis de la mañana indicándonos que (we ought) prepararnos para el desayuno en el comedor común de la escuela.
3. Diez minutos antes de las siete, ya (we were) sentados en nuestros asientos.
4. El capellán (would say) la oración acostumbrada que (we would listen) con ansiedad por empezar a tomar el primer alimento del día que (it used to be ) tan escaso como los otros.

Impersonal ‘se’

Personal and Subjunctive, Impersonal and Objective


Compare the sentences on the left with those on the right. On the left, there is a personal subject in each sentence. On the right, the personal subject has disappearedand each sentence is impersonal and objective.
In Spanish the reflexive se + verb is often used to render an idea impersonal and objective. Such sentences are often expressed by the passive voice in English.

Enrique dice que Diego trabaja poco.        Se dice que Diego trabajo poco.
Henry says that James doesn’t work much.     It is said that James doesn’t work much.
Mis padres vendieron el automóvil     Se vendió el automóvil ayer
ayer.
My parents sold the car yesterday.    The was sold yesterday.

Check Your Learning-Impersonal ‘se’

Change the following given passive sentences into the impersonal passive sentences using the ‘se’ construction. 
Example: La acacia fue plantada en el frente del jardín.
         Se plantó la acacia en el frente del jardín.


1. Los caballos fueron vendidos ayer o anteayer.
2. Los libros serán llevadas mañana.
3. Eso había sido dicho muchas veces ya.
4. En ese momento la sala era usada para celebrar la reunión.
5. Los resultados de los juegos son anunciados en las páginas deportivas.

Present Perfect tense

The perfect tenses which are compound, are formed by using the five simple tenses of the auxiliary verb haber with a past participle.

Past Participle

A past participle is formed by adding -ado to the stem of -ar verbs, and -ido to the stem of -er and -ir verbs. 
hablar    hablado    spoken
comer     comido     eaten
vivir     vivido     lived


Present Perfect

The present perfect is formed with the present of haber and a past participle (have or has + past participle). It is the first of the seven compound tenses. This tense expresses an action that took place at no definite time in the past. It is also called the past indefinite. It is a compound tense because of its use of the verb haber. 

hablar
I have spoken, you have spoken, he has spoken, etc.
he     hablado    hemos     hablado
has    hablado    habéis    hablado
ha     hablado    han       hablado


Note the translation into English in the examples that follow. 

1.  He hablado.                   I have spoken.
2.  No has venido a verme.        You have not come to see me,
3.  Elena ha ganado el premio.    Helen has won the prize.

Check Your Learning-Present Perfect Tense

Choose the correct form of the verb corresponding to the narrative.

(He llegado, Llegaba) tarde a mi trabajo hoy. (Ha habido, Había) mucho tráfico y mi autobús se (ha retrasado, retrasaba). Cuando (entré, entraba) en la oficina, el jefe me (ha mirado, miraba) de arriba abajo y me (ha dicho, decía) que no (he podido, podía) seguir viniendo tarde si (he quierido, quería) conservar mi puesto. No (he podido, podía) explicarle que esta tardanza se (ha debido, debía) a un simple problema de tráfico y que yo no (tuve, tenía) la culpa. Le (he prometido, prometía) que no (fui, iba) a llegar tarde otra vez . . . esta semana.

Pluperfect tense

This is the second of the compound tenses. It is also referred to as the Past Perfect Indicative. In Spanish and English, this past tense is used to express an action which happened in the past before another past action. Since it is used in relation to another past action, the other past action, when stated, is usually expressed in the preterite.

This tense is formed with the imperfect of haber + a past participle. 

hablar
I had spoken, you had spoken, he had spoken, etc.
había     hablado     habíamos     hablado
habías    hablado     habíais      hablado
había     hablado     habían       hablado
Juan dijo que había hablado español     John said that he had spoken
  con Carlos.                             with Charles.
Carlos había vivido en México.          Charles had lived in Mexico.
Allí había aprendido el español.        There he had learned Spanish.

Check Your Learning-Pluperfect Tense

You have just passed through a very bad winter and you are telling a friend about the things that had happened during this time.

1. Since September the newspapers had been predicting a very bad winter.
2. I had been waiting for a call from my niece Jessica.
3. I had warned her of the road conditions.
4. It had been snowing the whole night and the cars couldn’t get through.
5. Jessica had told me that she wouldn’t go out.

Future tense

The future tense has but one set of endings for all three conjugations. The endings are added to the whole infinitive. 
 hablar                  comer                vivir
hablaré   hablaremos    comeré  comeremos    viviré   viviremos
hablarás  hablaréis     comerás comeréis     vivirás  viviréis
hablará   hablarán      comerá  comerán      vivirá   vivirán


In general, the future indicates a future action in Spanish as in English. 

 El año que viene compraré     Next year I will buy a new car.
 un nuevo coche.


In Spanish, ir a + infinitive may be used for the future, just as a form of "to be going to" + verb sometimes expresses the future in English. In certain cases of an immediate future, Spanish prefers ir a + infinitive where English might use the future. 

Voy a encender la luz ahora mismo.      I will turn on the light right now.

Check Your Learning-Future Tense

The Christmas season is coming and you are saying what you will do in your family. Translate each sentence; first with the future verb, and second with the ir a + infinitive construction. Use the following examples as your guide. 
 Mi papá (cambiar) las bombillas del patio.
 (a)  Mi papá cambiará las bombillas del patio.
 (b)  Mi papá va a cambiar las bombillas del patio.


1. Todos nosotros (arreglar) el arbolito de Navidad.



2. Mi Mamá (encender) las luces del arbolito.



3. Yo (envolver) los regalos.



4. Tú (hacer) las galleta para Santa Claus.



5. Todos (poner) los adornos sobre las mesas.



6. Mi familia (vestirse) en ropa formal por la fiesta.



por/para

The prepositions por and para consitute a special problem, since each of them is sometimes (but not always) the equivalent of the English preposition "for."

Para is used in the following cases: for, in order, by, about to

1. Use, for 

 tazas para té          teacups
 vestidos para niñas    girls’ dresses


2. Destination (person or place), for 

 La carta es para Concha.  The letter is for Concha
 El partió para Cuba.      He left for Cuba.


3. Purpose, in order 

 Estudia para aprender.       He studies in order to learn.
 Trabajo para ganar dinero.   I work in order to earn money.


4. Point of future time, for, by 

 La lección para mañana.    The lesson for tomorrow
 Lo tendré para el lunes.   I shall have it by Monday.


5. Estar para + infinitive, to be about to 

 Juan está para salir.    John is about to leave.
 Estaban para empezar     They were about to begin.


Por is used in the following cases: through, along, by, per

1. Place through or along which 

 Pasó por el pueblo.   He passed through the town.
 Andan por la acera.   They walk along the sidewalk.


2. Expressions of time, in, during, at 

 por la mañana, por la noche       in the morning, at night
 por dos años, por mucho tiempo    for two years, for a long time


3. Exchange, price, for 

 Le di mi lápiz por su pluma    I gave him my pencil for his pen.
 Pagó un peso por el libro      He paid a dollar for the book.


4. Unit of measure, by, per 

 Se vende por libras.          It is sold by the pound
 Gana cinco pesos por d’a.     He earns five dollars a day.


5. Way or means, by 

 Voy por tren.         I am going by train.
 Lo hizo por fuerza.   He did it by force.


6. Because of, on account of, for 

 La ciudad es famosa por su clima.    The city is famous for its climate.


7. To go for, to send for, for 

 Voy por Alicia              I am going for Alicia.
 Fue por un libro para mi.   He went for a book for me.


8. On behalf of, for the sake of, for 

 Lo hizo por su amigo.   He did it for his friend.
 Voté por Eduardo.       I voted for Edward.


9. Motive, reason, for 

 Pelean por la libertad.   They are fighting for liberty.
 No lo hizo por miedo al   He did not do it for fear of the
 castigo.                  punishment.


10. After a passive verb to indicate the agent, by 

 Fue escrito por Cervantes.       It was written by Cervantes.
 Fue construido por los aztecas.  It was built by the Aztecs.


11. Estar por + infinitive, indicates what remains to be done, to be in favor of 

 La carta está por escribir.   The letter is yet to be written.
 Estoy por escribirla.         I am in favor of writing.

Check Your Learning-por/para

Fill the blank spaces in the exercise with the appropriate form of por or para.

!. Estuve en España dos años. 2. Estos papeles tienen cierta importanvis por mí. 3. Esa música fue compuesta un colmbiano. 4. Las obras de ese autor indican un gran amor la naturaleza. 5. Cuando ocurrió el accidente, íbamos Málaga. 6. Tú eres muy joven entender eso. 7. ¿Duerme usted una siesta la tarde? 8. Tengo curiosidad saber cómo entró este hombre en nuestra casa. 9. ¿Cuántas horas semana se trabaja en Méjico? 10. Carlota abandonó la idea de ir a Francia la enfermedad de su hermana.

Conditional tense

The present conditional of all verbs is formed by adding the endings of the imperfect indicative of haber to the infinitive: ía, ías, ías, íais, ían. It translates as the English ‘would’ or ‘should’: 
hablar-to speak     comer-to eat     vivir-to live
hablaría            comería          viviría
hablarías           comerías         vivirías
hablaría            comería          viviría
hablaríamos         comeríamos       viviríamos
hablaríais          comeríais        viviríais
hablarían           comerían         vivirían


The conditional is used to state something that would happen with the implication that its happening depends on something else. This something else may be expressed by a si clause, which is usually in the imperfect subjective; by a pero clause, which is in the indicative; or it may be used alone, with the implication that something would happen, were something else true. 

Yo iría a Europa si tuviera dinero.  I would go to Europe if I had money
Patricio saldría esta noche, pero    Patrick would go out tonight, but
tiene que trabajar.                  he has to work.
El señor Vives vendría.              Mr. Vives would come.


If the main clause has a verb or the ‘if’ clause has a verb. 

in the          in the:
Present         Present
Future          Present
Imperfect       Imperfect
Preterite       Preterite
Conditional     Past Subjunctive  (-ra or -se)
Si está aquí, trabaja             If he is here, he is working.
Si estaba aquí, trabajaba.        If he was here, he was working.
Si está aquí mañana, trabajará.   If he’s here tomorrow, he’ll be working.
Si estuviera aquí, trabajería.    If he were here, he’d be working.

Check Your Learning-Conditional tense

Translate the following sentences into Spanish of the things that you would and would not do.

1. I said that I would not work any more at the fast-food restaurant.
2. Now I would like to buy a new car.
3. I would ask for a loan at the bank where I work.
4. My supervisor would help me.
5. Would they check my credit?
6. In a few months I would marry Luisa/Ricardo but she/he is not so sure.
7. Would she/he prefer me or her/his old girlfriend/boyfriend?
8. I would talk to her/him, but I am afraid of her/his answer.
9. What things I would tell her/him!

Future Perfect tense

This compound tense is formed with the future haber plus the past participle of the verb you have in mind. In Spanish and in English, this tense is used to express an action that will happen in the future before another future action. 
hablar
I will have spoken, you will have spoken, etc.
habré    hablado    habremos    hablado
habrás   hablado    habréis     hablado
habrá    hablado    habrán      hablado
A las tres habré recibido la respuesta.  I will have received the reply by three o’clock.
María llegará mañana y habré             Mary will arrive tomorrow and I will have
 terminado mi trabajo.                    finished my work.

Check Your Learning-Future Perfect tense

Complete the sentences, substituting the English word in parenthesis with the Spanish equivalent.

Manuel se graduará el 15 de junio. Éstas son algunas de las cosas que habrá logrado para esa fecha.

1. Para ese día Manuel (will have made) una decisión sobre su futuro.
2. (He will have finished) todos los exámenes para el 8 de junio.
3. Sus familiares y amigos (will have received) las invitatciones para el primero de junio.
4. Antes del 15 de junio Manuel (will have applied for) empleo en varias compañías de electrónica.

Commands

There are two types of commands, one with t ú (vosotros) and one with usted (ustedes).

1. Familiar Commands (tú)
Familiar command are used with people to who you would say tú. The singular is the same as the third person singular of the present indicative: 
 ¡Habla (tú)   Speak!
 ¡Come (tú)    Eat!
 ¡Sube (tú)    Go up!
The plural is always formed by removing the -r of the infinitive and adding -d 
   hablar - to speak
  ¡Habla (tú)                Speak!
  ¡Hablad (vosotros, -as)    Speak!
   aprender-to learn
  ¡Aprende (tú)               Learn!
  ¡Aprended (vosotros, -as)   Learn!
   escribir-to write
  ¡Escribe (tú)               Write!
  ¡Esrcribid (vosotros, -as)  Write!


Familiar commands in the negative are in the present subjunctive: 

  Singular                            Plural
¡No hables!     Don’t speak!          ¡No habléis! Don’t speak!
¡No me hables!  Don’t talk to me!     ¡No comáis! Don’t eat!


Other Examples: 

¡Háblame!       Speak to me!
¡Háblales!      Speak to them!
¡Dame!          Give me!
¡No me des!     Don’t give me!
¡Dímelo!        Tell it to me!
¡No me digas!   Don’t tell me!


Polite Commands

Polite commands are used with people to whom you would say usted and are in the subjunctive. To make the subjunctive, you change the ending of the third person present indicative to "a" if it is "e" or to "e" if it is "a."

Indicative Subjunctive 

Habla.  He speaks.      Hable Ud.  Speak!
Come.   He eats.        Come Ud.   Eat!


The plural is formed by adding -n to the singular: 

¡Hablen Uds.!    Speak!
¡Coman Uds.!     Eat!

Check Your Learning-Commands.

Substitute the infinitives in parenthesis for the imperative form. Alternate between familiar and polite commands.
1. (lavar ) mi coche.
2. (vender) estos discos viejos
3. (cubrir) el plato con la comida
4. (cerrar) la puerta
5. (volver) pronto
6. No (escribir) en mis libros
7. No (comer) esa comida
8. No (traer) nada
9. (poner) los libros en la mesa
10. No (ir) allá

Pronoun positioning

An object pronoun (direct, indirect, or reflexive) generally precedes the conjugated verb.
Exceptions: The object pronoun follows, and is attached to, the verb if the latter is a direct affirmative command, or suggestion, an infinitive, or a gerund. It may precede an auxiliary verb used with an infinitive, or a gerund. 
Juan lo vió.                 John saw it.
No lo vió.                   John did not see it.
Juan le dió el libro.        John gave him the book.
Juan se levanta temprano.    John rises early.
No se levanta tarde.         He does not rise late.
Déme Ud. el libro.           Give me the book.
No me dé el lápiz.           Do not give me the pencil.
Leámoslo.                    Let’s read it.
No lo escribamos.            Let’s not write it.

				                  
Me alegro saberlo.           I am glad to know it.

				                  

				                  
Quiero hablarle              I wish to speak to him.

				                  
Le quiero hablar.

				                  

				                  
Estoy ecribiéndola.          I am writing it.

				                  
La estoy escribiendo.

				                  


				                    Note:  When one or two object pronouns follow and are attached
				                    to the verb form, an accent mark must be added to retain the original stress
				                    of the verb.
			                      
TWO OBJECT PRONOUNS 

				                      When there are two object pronouns, the indirect precedes the direct. 
				                      A reflexive preceds another pronoun.  If both pronouns begin with
				                      the letter "l", the first one is changed to se (se lo for le lo, les lo,
				                      etc.)  Both pronouns precede the conjugated verb. 

			                      
 Check Your Learning-Pronoun Position

                                  Translate the following sentences to Spanish.
                                    
1.  She gave the newspaper to Arthur.  He read it and gave
                                      it back to her. 

                                      2.  The clerk took out some suits, showed them to Victor, and
                                      finally sold them to him. 

                                      3.  My sisters wanted to hear the story before going to bed, and
                                      my mother read it to them. 

                                      4.  Marina saw some blouses in the store, and her aunt bought
                                      them for her. 

                                      5.  Micaela asked me for the magazine, but I didn’t give it to
                                      her. 

                                      6.  The librarian could not find the book that Tony wanted, but
                                      he sent it to him later. 

                                  
				                  
 Subjective Mood

                                  People recognize the need to express ideas in two entirely different realms
                                  of thought.  On the one hand, there is the objective world of reality
                                  for expressing what is, what was, and what will be.  On the other
                                  hand, there is the realm of all areas other than those of objective fact,
                                  such as hypothetical concepts, desired or preferred actions commanding,
                                  expressing ideas contrary to fact, and expressing doubts or beliefs.
                                    
Spanish specifically designates the verb forms of the subjunctive mood
                                      to express the world of unreality.  English, on the other hand, must
                                      borrow verb forms from other uses to express the subjunctive.
                                  
The regular present subjunctive is formed by adding the endings to the
                                        stem of the infinitive (may-)
                                  
 hablar                comer                 vivir

				                  
hable   hablemos       coma   comamos        viva   vivamos

				                  
hables  habléis        comas  comáis         vivas  viváis

				                  
hable   hablen         coma   coman          viva   vivan

				                  


				                    The present subjunctive is translated in many ways according to
				                    how it is used.  Many times it is translated as "may," expressing possibility
				                    or uncertainty.  This is often true when used after adverbs quizás,
				                    tal vez, acaso, and also in many dependent clauses.
			                      
In Spanish, the present subjunctive is used:

				                      

				                      1.  To express a command
			                      
 Siéntese.            Sit down.

				                  
 No se siente.        Don’t sit down.

				                  
 Cierren la puerta.   Close the door.

				                  
 Dígame la verdad.    Tell me the truth.

				                  
 No te sientes.       Don’t sit down.

				                  
 No entres.           Don’t come in.

				                  
 No lo hagas.         Don’t do it.

				                  
 No duermas.          Don’t sleep.

				                  


				                    2.  After a verb that expresses some kind of wish, insistence,
				                    preference, suggestion, or request.
			                      
 Quiero que Carmen lo haga.            I want Mary to do it.

				                  
 Deseo que Concha trabaje mucho.       I want Concha to work a lot.

				                  
 Sugiero que el chico hable español.   I suggest that the boy speak Spanish.

				                  


				                    3.  After a verb that expresses doubt, fear, joy, hope, sorrow,
				                    or some other emotion.
			                      
 Espero que Juan no esté enfermo.  I hope that Juan isn’t sick.

				                  
 Dudo que Isabel lo haga.          I doubt that Isabel will do it.

				                  
 Temo que Marco venga.             I fear that Marco is coming.

				                  
 No creo que Julia vuela.          I don’t believe that Julia will return.

				                  


				                    4.  After certain impersonal expressions that show necessity,
				                    regret, importance, possibility, or urgency.
			                      
 Es importante que tú lo hagas.    It’s necessary that you do it.

				                  
 Es urgente que Carmen vaya.       It’s urgent that Carmen goes.

				                  
 Es lástima que Uds. no vengan.    It’s a pity that you aren’t coming.

				                  
 Check Your Learning-Subjunctive Mood

                                  Correct the following sentences by changing the underlined infinitive to
                                  the appropriate form of the subjunctive.
                                    
Example: Me prohiben hablar con Juan.

				                  
         Me prohiben que hable con Juan.

				                  


				                    1.  Les aconseja pagar los impuestos. 

			                      
2.  ¿Dejas entrar al Sr. Caballero? 

			                      
3.  Francisco me dices que ir. 

		                          
4.  La lluvia nos ha impedido salir. 

		                          
5.  La doctora les manda traer al enfermo. 

	                              
6.  Espero que ir con nosotros. 

	                              
7.  Deseo que mi amiga no estar enferma. 

                                  
8.  Dudan que mi hermano venir mañana. 

				                                  

                                  

                              

				              

                          

				          

                      

			      

				    

				      

				        
                      

				      

				        

                      

				      

				        
                      

				      

				        
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